Even the Romans and the Persians preferred not to put their generals and kings in the thickest part of the fight. That achievement is itself an impressive feat, but the story of Alexander the Great is an incredibly rich and complex one. This does not mean, however, that he did not ruthlessly suppress uprisings or hesitate to viciously annihilate those who opposed him. Alexander wanted to press on and attempt to conquer all of India, but his war-weary soldiers refused, and his officers convinced him to return to Persia. James Andrew Broun Ramsay, marquess and 10th earl of Dalhousie, https://www.britannica.com/summary/Alexander-the-Great-Timeline. Although Darius escaped and hoped to mount another defense, he was unable to gather another army. Finally rid of Darius, Alexander proclaimed himself King of Persia. Corrections? The Queens of Persia at the Feet of Alexander, by Charles Le Brun, 1661, Palace of Versailles, France, While his exploits can certainly earn him his moniker, even more fascinating is his complex and passionate personality. He then proceeded east in order to carry out his plans to conquer the Achaemenid Empire. In both encounters, he faced at least 10,000 more men, and may have been outnumbered by two to one or more. By doing so, they promised to provide monetary support to Alexander. They began to fear that Alexander, the king they had hero-worshiped, was turning into an eastern despot, although a young eunuch was eventually introduced to Alexander, and helped to keep his decadence in check. Though he had conquered Egypt, Alexander was not interested in imposing his own ideas of truth, religion, or behavior upon the people as long as they willingly kept the supply lines open to feed and equip his troops (an important aspect of his ability to rule vast areas, which was to be neglected by his successors). In 327 BCE, with the Persian Empire firmly under his control and newly married to the Bactrian noblewoman Roxana (l. c. 340 to c. 310 BCE), Alexander turned his attention to India. He was so dangerous in a direct fight that the Mallians took to shooting at him with their bows, and one found its mark. And all the Eastern soothsayers who happened to be then at Ephesus, looking upon the ruin of this temple to be the forerunner of some other calamity, ran about the town, beating their faces, and crying that this day had brought forth something that would prove fatal and destructive to all Asia. Alexander III of Macedon, Alexander consolidates support in Asia Minor. Darius was building up a massive army, drawing men from the far reaches of his empire, and planned to use sheer numbers to crush Alexander. . They began with battles against the Achaemenid Persian Empire, then under the rule of Darius III of Persia. Alexander claimed that, while dying, Darius had named Alexander as his successor to the Achaemenid throne and had asked Alexander to avenge his death, a striking irony since it was Alexander who had pursued him to his death. His troops backed down and submitted to Alexander's wishes, and in a gesture of goodwill, he returned the titles to the Macedonians and ordered a great communal feast at which he dined and drank with the army. As he continued marching into Persia, he saw that his victory at Granicus had been lost on no one. [citation needed], Alexander sent an envoy to Tyre, proposing a peace treaty, and asked to visit their city and offer sacrifices to their God Melqart. In the final assault, Alexander even mounted siege towers on the ships to attack from multiple sides of the city wall. Alexanders forces were greatly outnumbered in men but not in experience or the determination for revenge and to claim Persias great wealth, much of it plundered. By doing so, he was able to minimize the advantage the Persians had in numbers. Cleitus, the elder statesman who had saved Alexander's life at the Battle of Granicus, would doom himself in a similar way. Four months later, Alexander allowed the troops to loot Persepolis. [citation needed], After the battle, Parmenion rounded up the Persian baggage train while Alexander and his own bodyguard chased after Darius in hopes of catching up. While Philip was away, a tribe of Thracians to the north called the Maedi rebelled against Macedonian control. From the southern slope, Persian archers and catapults launched their projectiles. When he was asked who should succeed him, Alexander said, the strongest, which answer led to his empire being divided between four of his generals: Cassander, Ptolemy, Antigonus, and Seleucus (known as the Diadochi or 'successors'). [citation needed]. The city remained a beacon of Hellenic culture in the region and would do so up until the Romans conquered Egypt in 30 BC. He succeeded in crushing the revolt, drove the Maedians out of their chief city, and recolonized it with Greeks. After designing the plan for the city of Alexandria, he left Egypt for Syria and northern Mesopotamia to pursue further campaigns against Persia. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit.". Alexander founded many cities bearing his name during this time to further his public image not only as a "liberator" but as a god and adopted the title Shahanshah (King of Kings) used by the rulers of the First Persian Empire. San Jose State University.Bucephalus. [25][26] After the Battle of Gaugamela in present-day Iraqi Kurdistan, Alexander had advanced to Babylon and Susa. After the Siege of Gaza, Alexander advanced from Syria towards the heart of the Persian Empire, crossing both the Euphrates and the Tigris rivers without any opposition. [35] Although victorious, Battle of the Hydaspes was also the most costly battle fought by the Macedonians.[36]. Our latest articles delivered to your inbox, once a week: Numerous educational institutions recommend us, including Oxford University. He is known as 'the great' both for his military genius and his diplomatic skills in handling the various populaces of the regions he conquered. Considering all of these factors and the close ties Alexander had with the city and the nation, Alexandria is the most likely location of his tomb. License. and the Persians preferred not to put their generals and kings in the thickest part of the fight. De Santis, Marc G. "At The Crossroads of Conquest". A Royal Road connected Susa with the more eastern capitals of Persepolis and Pasargadae in Persis (the Persian Empire had several "capitals"), and was the natural venue for Alexander's continued campaign. After achieving a breakthrough, Alexander demonstrated he could do the difficult thing and held the cavalry in check after it broke the Persian right. He took the unconquerable city after a siege of just over six months. When the Tyrians began to hurl rocks into the water to impede their progress, the Macedonians mounted large winches on their ships to remove them. Yet after the unexpected deaths of his two older brothers, Philip suddenly found himself the king of a struggling nation. Alexander, who may have felt genuinely saddened at Darius' death, buried Darius next to his Achaemenid predecessors in a full military funeral. Historians' accounts of Alexander's response to this event universally agree that his grief was insupportable. We care about our planet! Still, the visit furthered speculation Alexander was a deity. In all, the Battle of Gaugamela was a disastrous defeat for the Persians, and possibly one of Alexander's finest victories. Since their allegiance was to their city, they were therefore Alexander's. Cowed, the Greeks acknowledged his authority, and Macedonian garrisons were left in a number of Greek states. During his two decades on the throne, Philip II had unified[2] the poleis (Greek city-states) of mainland Greece (with Macedonian hegemony) under the League of Corinth. [citation needed], Alexander, viewing himself as the legitimate Achaemenid successor to Darius, viewed Bessus as a usurper to the Achaemenid throne, and eventually found and executed this 'usurper'. His desire to learn, and to have information recorded as scientifically as possible, probably stemmed from Aristotle's teachings and enthusiasm. He was at the front of all the most critical charges in every battle. Alexander the Great. Antipater (c. 399-319 BCE) was a Macedonian statesman and loyal Cassander (c. 355-297 BCE, r. 305-297 BCE) was self-proclaimed Perdiccas (d. 321 BCE) was one of Alexander the Great's commanders On June 10, 323 BCE Alexander the Great died in Babylon. Along the way his army conquered the Malli clans (in modern-day Multan). He taught the young heir from the ages of thirteen to sixteen and instilled in Alexander a love of philosophy, literature, science, and naturalism. His worst injury came during the. He took another approach and sliced through the knot with his sword, claiming triumph. World History Encyclopedia, 14 Nov 2013. Updates? Get HISTORYs most fascinating stories delivered to your inbox three times a week. Even though he had abandoned his conquest of India, he still paused on his march to subdue those hostile tribes he encountered along the way. As the story goes, Alexander fell in love with Roxane on sight. Alexander was just 16 when Philip went off to battleand left his son in charge of Macedonia. Fed up with Alexanders new Persian-like persona, a drunk Cleitus continually insulted Alexander and minimized his achievements. In 332 B.C. After recovering, he divided his troops, sending half of them back to Persia and half to Gedrosia, a desolate area west of the Indus River. 144 pages Paperback 174x111mm. Alexander the Greats father, Philip II of Macedonia, did not expect to ever become king. Darius now launched his chariots, which were intercepted by the Agrianians, and quickly rendered useless. In Stock. He amassed a large fleet, finally breached the citys walls in July 332 B.C. The dissent against Alexander's plans to take the city by force disappeared, and his engineers began to design the structure. Legend had it whoever unwound the knot would conquer all of Asia. Home Geography & Travel Historical Places ancient Greek civilization Alexander in Egypt Egypt was taken without a struggle, an indication of the dislike the subject population felt toward Persia. Related Content He then laid siege to the heavily fortified island of Tyre in January 332 B.C., after the Tyrians refused him entry. Ancient History Encyclopedia.Alexander the Great. Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. Alexander ultimately fought many of his battles on a river bank. Plutarch says that, 14 days before his death, Alexander entertained his fleet admiral Nearcus and his friend Medius of Larissa with a long bout of drinking, after which he fell into a fever from which he never recovered. At Ephesus, he offered to rebuild the Temple of Artemis, which had been destroyed by arson on the night of his birth, but the city refused his gesture. published on 20 December 2011. Conquest of the Mediterranean coast and Egypt. Though his birth is well documented by historians, there is little information on his youth, aside from tales of his precociousness (he allegedly interviewed visiting dignitaries about the boundaries and strengths of Persia when he was seven years old), his tutors, and his childhood friends. He split his army in two, sending half back to Susa by sea under the command of Admiral Nearchus through the Persian Gulf, and marching the other half on through the Gedrosian Desert in 325 BCE, almost a full year after his troops had mutinied. In the territory of the Indus, he nominated his officer Peithon as a satrap, a position he would hold for the next ten years until 316 BC, and in the Punjab he left Eudemus in charge of the army, at the side of the satrap Porus and Taxiles. Some historians say Alexander died of malaria or other natural causes; others believe he was poisoned. Alexander then moved on to take Babylon and Susa which surrendered unconditionally without resistance. The four men who had managed to scale the wall with him desperately defended their king, falling one by one to their own wounds. Alexander invited all the chieftains of the former satrapy of Gandhara, in the north of what is now Jhelum River, Pakistani region (Modern History) to come to him and submit to his authority. In the winter of 327/326 BC, Alexander personally led a campaign against these clans; the Aspasioi of Kunar valley, the Guraeans of the Guraeus valley, and the Assakenoi of the Swat and Buner valleys. Meanwhile, Darius took the Persian army to intercept Alexander. Alexander asked for volunteers, whom he would reward if they could climb the cliffs under the fortress. The manes and tails of the horses were cut as a sign of mourning, and Alexander refused to promote another to Hephaestion's position as commander of the cavalry. He was only ten at the time and won the horse, by Placido Costanzi, 1736-37, The Walters Art Museum, Baltimore, People grew up faster in ancient times than they do today. While the main body of the line held ground against the main assault of the opposing Persians, Alexander and his companion cavalry drew the Persian left away from the battlefield, opening up a gap in their line. Download Full Size Image. There were some 300 men who from previous sieges had gained experience in rock-climbing. Memnon, however, now deployed his catapults, and Alexander's army fell back. Though capable of great diplomacy and skill in dealing with conquered peoples and their rulers, Alexander was not known for tolerating personal opinions which conflicted with his own, and this intolerance was exacerbated by drinking. They collected it in a helmet and eagerly took it to present to their king. In 336 Philip was assassinated. [32] A similar slaughter then followed at Ora, another stronghold of the Assakenoi. After gaining control of the former Achaemenid satrapy of Gandhara, including the city of Taxila, Alexander advanced into Punjab, where he engaged in battle against the regional king Porus, whom Alexander defeated in the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC,[33][34] but was so impressed by the demeanor with which the king carried himself that he allowed Porus to continue governing his own kingdom as a satrap. According to Curtius, "Not only did Alexander slaughter the entire population of Massaga, but also did he reduce its buildings to rubbles". By turns charismatic and ruthless, brilliant and power hungry, diplomatic and bloodthirsty, Alexander inspired such loyalty in his men theyd follow him anywhere and, if necessary, die in the process. He inherited a highly trained, mobile military force and his father's dream of conquering the Persian empire. It is said that Alexander was so enraged at the Tyrians' defense and the loss of his men that he destroyed half the city. [15], The Battle of the Granicus River in May 334 BC was fought in Northwestern Asia Minor (modern-day Turkey), near the site of Troy. Books The period of history from his death to 31 B.C., when his empire folded, would come to be known as the Hellenistic period, from Hellazein, which means, to speak Greek or identify with the Greeks. Alexander the Great is revered as one of the most powerful and influential leaders the ancient world ever produced. A strong wind caused the fire to destroy much of the city. Theories concerning his cause of death have ranged from poisoning to malaria to meningitis to bacterial infection from drinking contaminated water (among others). [13], In these early months, Darius still refused to take Alexander seriously or mount a serious challenge to Alexander's movements. Alexander then faced the Assakenoi, who fought bravely and offered stubborn resistance to Alexander in the strongholds of Massaga, Ora and Aornos. Though a eunuch, Batis was physically imposing and ruthless. He left only a small contingent to guard the defile, and took his entire army to destroy the plain that lay ahead of Alexander's army. Livius.org. HISTORY reviews and updates its content regularly to ensure it is complete and accurate. During his time of leadership, he united Greece, reestablished the Corinthian League and conquered the Persian Empire. (2013, November 14). He would build an empire on the back of his motto, there is nothing impossible to him who will try.. The Macedonian line was arrayed with the heavy Phalanxes in the middle, Macedonian cavalry led by Alexander on the right, and allied Thessalian cavalry led by Parmenion on the left. He ordered the ancient capital and tomb to be restored and took other measures to integrate his army with the people of the region and merge the cultures of Persia and Macedonia. Price: 8.99. World History Encyclopedia. In the past, Alexander had referred to his biological father, Philip, as his "so-called" father, and preferred to think of the deity Amon Zeus as his actual father. Either way, he never named a successor. [citation needed], Bessus fatally stabbed Darius, before fleeing eastwards. Aristotle noun (384-322 BCE) Greek scientist and philosopher. It would be the first of many settlements named in his honor, such as the great city of Alexandria in Egypt. The influence of Leonidas may be seen in Alexander's lifelong resilience and physical stamina as well as in his skill with horses. The Persian contingent that was supposed to guard the defile soon abandoned it, and Alexander passed through without any problems. Situated to the north of the frequently warring. Greeks of Alexander's day knew nothing of China, or any other lands east of Bactria. Yet for many ancient states, the generals rightful place was at the head of the army. Alexander's friends Cassander (l.c. Alexander wasted no time in gathering the soldiers left under his command and marching against the rebels. We strive for accuracy and fairness. So Alexander led his troops down the Indus River and was severely wounded during a battle with the Malli. The story of the siege is told by the Roman historian Arrian of Nicomedia, in Anabasis (section 4.18.419.6). He had, first of all, a father whose accomplishments laid a firm foundation for his later success. He charmed foreign ambassadors and won a bet with his father that he could ride an unruly stallion. In addition, the deadly Persian chariots were useless on a cramped, muddy river bank. Alexander the Great not only fulfilled this duty but seemed to revel in it. As he moved deeper into Persia, however, the threat of trouble seemed to grow. Perdiccas was also Alexander's friend as well as his bodyguard and fellow cavalryman, and it would make sense, considering Alexander's habit of rewarding those he was close to with favors, that he would choose Perdiccas over others. Alexander the Great fought two pitched battles against the Persians, . At Mount Haemus, the Macedonian army attacked and defeated a Thracian garrison manning the heights. He also quashed rebellions for independence in northern Greece. He even christened his new city Alexandropolis. By Marian VermeulenBA History and PhilosophyMarian has been a devoted student of the ancient world since primary school. Fate would soon provide him with one. [30], In 329 BC, Alexander launched the Siege of Cyropolis and fought against the Scythians in Battle of Jaxartes. The Persians held off the Macedonian advance for a month, but eventually, Alexander found a route around the pass. Alexander reacted immediately, but, while the other cities once again hesitated, Thebes decided to resist with the utmost vigor. As might be expected, leading from the front comes with consequences, and Alexander the Great took numerous injuries throughout his campaigns. Alexander appointed the general Antipater as regent and headed for Persia with his army. Believing that, after his victory over the Uxians, he would not encounter any more enemy forces during his march, Alexander neglected to send scouts ahead of his vanguard, and thus walked into Ariobarzanes' ambush. However, they managed to hold off the enemy just long enough for the Macedonians outside the walls, who were by now in frenzied fear for their beloved king, to claw their way over and through the walls. Alexander, who admired courage in his enemies and might have been inclined to show mercy to the brave Persian general, was infuriated at Batis's refusal to kneel and by the enemy commander's haughty silence and contemptuous manner. While it is clear that his father had a great impact on him, Alexander himself chose to see his success as ordained by divine forces. Livius.org.The Sacred Band of Thebes, from Plutarch, Life of Pelopidas. Alexander spoke to his army and tried to persuade them to march further into India but Coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return, the men, he said, "longed to again see their parents, their wives and children, their homeland". 367-282 BCE), and Hephaestion (l.c. Supposedly, one of those on the rock was a girl named Roxane. Plutarch and Arrian, however, claim he passed his reign to Perdiccas, the friend of Hephaistion with whom Alexander had carried their friend's body to his funeral in Babylon. in India, Alexander sat by his bedside all night, despite being exhausted from battle himself. [citation needed], The battle began with the Persians already present at the battlefield. They then lit it on fire, creating what we might call a primitive form of napalm, and ran it up onto the causeway. In battles throughout 327 BCE and into 326 BCE, Alexander subdued these tribes, finally meeting King Porus of Paurava at the Battle of the Hydaspes River in 326 BCE. He decides to disband his own navy and fight a land war in Persia. To gain credibility with the Persians, Alexander took on many Persian customs. Alexander the Great, also known as Alexander III or Alexander of Macedonia, (born 356 bce, Pella, Macedonia [northwest of Thessalonki, Greece]died June 13, 323 bce, Babylon [near Al-illah, Iraq]), king of Macedonia (336-323 bce ), who overthrew the Persian empire, carried Macedonian arms to India, and laid the foundations for the Hellenistic . In early 324 B.C., Alexander reached the city of Susa in Persia. In 356 B.C., Philips fourth wife, Olympias, gave birth to a son. Ancient Greek Olympics: 27 Facts On The Festival & Its Games. After conquering Egypt, Alexander faced Darius and his massive troops at Gaugamela in October 331 B.C. This coincided with the arrival of another hundred and twenty from Cyprus, which had heard of his victories and wished to join him. He turned Macedonia (a region on the northern part of the Greek peninsula) into a force to be reckoned with, and he fantasized about conquering the massive Persian Empire. The satrapies, however, had other intentions, and quickly capitulated to Alexander. Presently, the Persian navy returned to find their home cities under Alexander's control. Together, the army rode south towards Thessaly (Macedon's immediate neighbor to the south). Alexander personally led the more elite Greek Companion cavalry against the Persian left up against the hills, and cut up the enemy on the less encumbering terrain, thereby generating a quick rout. Darius received a response which began "King Alexander to Darius". Please note that some of these recommendations are listed under our old name, Ancient History Encyclopedia. Alexander took his fathers tactics to another level as he conquered cities across the near east. They collected it in a helmet and eagerly took it to present to their king. (Plutarch, Life of Alexander, I). Passing into Persis required traversing the Persian Gates, a narrow mountain pass that lent itself easily to ambush.[27]. As his army approached Mount Taurus, they found only one route through which to pass, which was a narrow defile called "The Gates". After he regained consciousness following the assault on Mallia, his friends came to his tent, weeping and begging him to be more careful and not put himself in such danger again. His worst injury came during the incident at the Mallian stronghold, while defending himself alone from the enemy onslaught within the walls. He was only ten at the time and won the horse, which he named Bucephalus. Alexander intended to march on and cross the River Ganges toward further conquests, but his troops, worn out by the hard-fought battle with Porus (in which, according to Arrian, Alexander lost 1000 men), mutinied in 326 BCE and refused to go further. We contribute a share of our revenue to remove carbon from the atmosphere and we offset our team's carbon footprint. Alexander, however, appointed independent boards to collect tribute and taxes from the satrapies, which appeared to do nothing more than improve the efficiency of government. The temple, he says, took fire and was burnt while its mistress was absent, assisting at the birth of Alexander. Memnon, realizing the city was lost, set fire to it and withdrew with his army. Alexander responded by appointing Persians to prominent positions in the army and awarded traditional Macedonian titles and honors to Persian units. Increasingly paranoid, Alexander ordered the death of one of his most esteemed generals, Parmenio, in 330 B.C., after Parmenio's son Philotas was convicted of plotting an assassination attempt against Alexander (and also killed). [citation needed], The Battle of Issus took place in southern Anatolia on November 333 BC. When Ptolemy was wounded by a poisoned arrow in India, Alexander sat by his bedside all night, despite being exhausted from battle himself. Not one to take no for an answer, Alexander sent some of his men to scale the rock and take the Sogdians by surprise. Some tribes surrendered peacefully; others did not. During his twelve-year reign he conquered the Achaemenid Persian Empire, the largest to have yet existed, and in the process had a profound effect on the world he moved through. by Charles La Fosse, 1672, Palace of Versailles, France, by Bernardino Mei, 1667, Cincinnati Art Museum, As might be expected, leading from the front comes with consequences, and Alexander the Great took numerous injuries throughout his campaigns. Oxford University brothers, Philip suddenly found himself the king of a struggling.... Greek Olympics: 27 Facts on the ships to attack from multiple sides of fight... Breached the citys walls in July 332 B.C in Battle of Jaxartes bedside... The rock was a girl named Roxane, had other intentions, and may have been by... This coincided with the Malli Battle of the ancient world ever produced dream. 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